rbd: refactor rbd_header_from_disk()

This rearranges rbd_header_from_disk so that it:
    - allocates the snapshot context right away
    - keeps results in local variables, not changing the passed-in
      header until it's known we'll succeed
    - does initialization of set-once fields in a header only if
      they have not already been set

The last point is moot at the moment, because rbd_read_header()
(the only caller) always supplies a zero-filled header buffer.

Signed-off-by: Alex Elder <elder@inktank.com>
Reviewed-by: Josh Durgin <josh.durgin@inktank.com>